DISCUSSION
BILINGUALISM
A. Definition of Bilingualism
Bilingualism is
relating to the use of two languages or two language code. In general
sociolinguistic, bilingualism defined as the use of two languages by a
speaker in interaction with others in turn (Mackey 1962:12, Fishman 1975:73).
To be able to
use two languages the speaker must master both languages. First, his own
mother tongue or first language (L1), and the second are another language that
is the language of both (L2).People who can use both languages are called
bilingual people. While the ability to use two languages called bilingualisms.
According to
bilingualism experts is defined as follows:
1.
Robert Lado (1964-214)
Bilingualism is the ability to speak two languages
with the same or almost the same. Technically, this opinion refers to the
knowledge of the two languages, how the level by one.
2.
MacKey (1956:155)
Bilingualism is the alternate use of two languages. Bilingualismformulates
a habit of using two languages or more by a person (the alternative use of
two or more languages by the same individual). Extension of this argument put
forward by the bilingualism levels in terms of mastery of the grammatical
elements, lexical, semantic, and style are reflected in the four language
skills, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
3.
Hartman and Stork (1972:27)
Bilingualism is the usage of two languages by a
speaker or speech community.
4.
Bloomfield (1958:56)
Bilingualism is the ability to use two languages
equally well by a speaker. Bilingualism formulates as well as mastery of two
languages or native like control of two languages. Mastery of two languages
with fluency and accuracy are the same as native speakers is very difficult
to measure.
5.
Haugen (1968:10)
Bilingualism is known two languages. If it is
described in more general terms is the use of two languages alternately either
productive or receptive by an individual or by society. Bilingualism argued
with know two languages (knowledge of two languages), enough to know two
languages passively without speaking or understanding.
6.
Oksaar
According to him bilingualism not only belongs to
individuals, but should be treated as belonging to the group, thus allowing a
bilingual society. It is seen in the Belgian set Dutch and French as the state
language, in Finland use Swedish and Find as the state language also. In
Montreal Canada, English and French are used interchangeably by the citizens,
so that the citizens of Montreal regarded as purely bilingual society.
So it can be
concluded from the above definitions that bilingualism closely related to the
use of two or more languages by a bilingual or bilingual society in
turn.Understanding of bilingualism is the use of two languages alternately
either productive or receptive by an individual or by society.
B. Division of Bilingualism
As for some kind of division of
bilingualism based on typology bilingualism, namely:
1. Compound
Bilingualism
Bilingualism
which suggests that the ability to speak one language is better than the
ability to speak another language. Bilingualism is based on the link between L1
to L2 controlled by bilingual. Two languages Controlled by a bilingual but
stand alone.
2. Coordinative/Parallel
Bilingualism
Bilingualism
shows that using two languages equally well by an individual. Bilingualism
balanced level of mastery associated with L1 and L2. Same person adept in both
languages.
3. Sub-ordinateBilingualism
(complex)
Bilingualism which
indicates that an individual at the time of entering often two languages(L1 and
L2 or vice versa). Bilingualism is connected with the situation faced by L1.
That a small group that surrounded and dominated by a large community of a
language that is possible so that young people can lose its first language.
There are some other opinions by
experts in the bilingualism typology are:
1. BaetenBeardsmore
(1985:22)
Added one degree
of another, namely bilingualism early (inception bilingualism) is bilingualism
that had by an individual who is in the process of mastering L2.
2. According
to Pohl (in Baetens Beardmore, 1985; 5)
Language
typology is based more on the status of languages existing in society, then
Pohl kedwibahasaan divide into three types, namely:
a.
Horizontal Bilingualism
Situation is the use of two different languages, but
each language has equal status in formal situation, culture and family life of
a group of users.
b.
Vertical Bilingualism
Is the use of two languages if the standard language
and dialects, whether related or separately, is owned by a speaker.
c.
Diagonal Bilingualism
Is the use of two languages or non-standard dialects
together but they do not have a genetic relationship with the standard language
used by the community
3. According
Arsenan (in Baerdsmore, 1985)
Type of
bilingualism on language skills, then he classified into two namely:
a.
Productive bilingualism or active or symmetric
bilingualism is the use of two languages
by an individual on all aspects of language skills (listening, speaking,
reading, and writing)
b.
Receptive bilingualism (receptive bilingualism)
or passive or asymmetric bilingualism.
Ferguson: Diglossiais a relatively stable
language situation, in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the
language, there is a very divergent, highly codified superposed variety… which
is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal
spoken purposes.
:Function
Prestige Literary heritage Acquisition Standardization Stability Grammar
Lexicon Phonology
The
speakers regard H as superior to L in a number of respects.
E.g. H is considered more
educated, more beautiful, more logical, better able to express important
thoughts, etc.
Pidgin language is nobody's native
language; it may arise when two speakers of different languages with no common
language try to hold a conversation. Pidgin is a language developed by people
whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between
them. Lexicon usually comes from one language, structure often from the other.
It has a very simple structure and does not last for a long period of time. Its
complexity varies according to the communicative demands placed on it. The more
there arefunctional demands, the more powerful and complex the pidgin is. It is
used as a second language and within a very limited domain (trade).
A Creole is a variety of language that developed from a pidgin and
is used as a first language by a population of native speakers. Creole is a
language that was originally a pidgin but has become nativized. A community of
speakers claims it as their first language. In the United States, there is a
very well known Creole, Louisiana Creole, which is derived from French and
African Languages,
Decreolization
is the process through which a creole language gradually becomes more like the
standard language of a region.
by
“borrowing” when an item is taken over lock stock and barrel from one variety
into another,
. Language can refer to a single linguistic norm or to a group of
related norms; dialect can refer to one of the norms.
Dialect is different kinds of
pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar in the same language.
Regional
Dialects
A regional dialect is a variation
in speaking a language associated with place and it is an easy way of observing
variety in language. Traveling throughout a wide geographical area where a
language is spoken, one notices differences in pronunciation, the choices of
words and syntax.
Social Dialects
The term dialect may be used to
describe differences in speech associated with various social groups or
classes. The problem of defining social group or social class and giving proper
weight to the factors used to determine social position, e.g., occupation,
education, income, caste, etc. These factors are related to how people speak.
There are British ‘public-school’ dialect and also an ‘African American
Vernacular English’ dialect. People have stereotypical notions of how other
people speak. Social dialects can indeed be described systematically.
In linguistics, a register is a variety
of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.
For example, when speaking in a formal setting, an English speaker may be more
likely to adhere more closely to prescribed grammar, pronounce words ending in
-ing with a velar nasal instead of an alveolar nasal (e.g. "walking",
not "walkin'"), choose more formal words (e.g. father vs. dad, child
vs. kid, etc.), and refrain from using contractions such as ain't, than when
speaking in an informal setting. The term ‘register’ denotes variation in
language according to the context in which it is being used.
Halliday et al. (1964) stressed three
dimensions along which register may vary: field, tenor, and mode.
• Field:
nature of the topic around which the language activity is centred (‘what is
happening’).
• Tenor:
relations between people communicating (‘who is taking part, and on what
terms’)
• Mode:
medium employed (‘is the language form spoken, written, signed etc.?’)
The second definition explored by Fischer
(1972) suggests that code switching or inter-sentential code-alternation
occurs when a bilingual speaker uses more than one language in a single
utterance above the clause level to appropriately convey his/her intents. But
from According to Baker & Jones (1998) code-switching describes any switch
among languages in the course of a conversation, whether at the level of words,
sentences or blocks of speech, such as what often occurs among bilinguals who
speak the same languages, whereas code-mixing describes the mixing of two
languages at the word level (i.e., one word inthe sentence is in a different
language). For isntance, firstly, one uses Indonesian language, then she/he
switches into Makassarese or any other languages.
Reasons Why We Code-Switch
Roxana A. Soto 2010 said that:
a. Sometimes the other language
has a better word or phrase to express a particular idea.I talk about this
reason in particular in the post I mentioned above. I do this a lot with
adjectives, for example, and it really has nothing to do with not knowing the
equivalent in either language. It’s rather a matter of using the better word to
describe what I am trying to say.
b. Sometimes the words we
code-switch are the only ones we have or they are more readily available in the
other language. This is not to say that we don’t necessarily know the correct
word in the language we’re using. This has more to do with something extremely
interesting Prof. Grosjean calls the “complementary principle” which basically
has to do with the notion that for bilinguals different aspects of life, such
as work, family, school, sports, hobbies, etc., require different languages.
For example, I spent a large part of my career as a television producer and
although I worked for Univision for many years surrounded with bilinguals (with
different levels of proficiency), we would always switch to English whenever we
were talking about technical terminology related to, say, editing video. It
just made more sense to do so since in the case of editing video, for instance,
the software was in English.
c. Sometimes we code-switch as a
communicative tool, including to exclude someone or to show expertise. If
you’re bilingual, you’ve surely done this: switched to the minority language so
that those around you can’t understand. Sometimes it might be to say something
specifically about those you’re excluding; sometimes you just don’t want others
to listen to what you’re saying. If you’re bilingual, you’ve surely been
embarrassed when you found out the person you were trying to exclude actually
spoke the minority language, too!
Based
on soewito:
a. InternalCode-Switching
If the code-switching occurs
among regional languages in one national language, or among dialects in one
regional language, or among some styles in one dialect, it is called as
Internal Code-switching.
b. ExternalCode-Switching
If code-switching occurs among
native language and foreign language is called as External Code-switching. Ex.
“Ah this man Hotman got his organization to contribute a lot of money to the
Armsterdamer fancy-fair. Ben jijnaaar de optochtgeweest?”
Kridalaksana (1993) gives definiton of code
mixing that is the use a language unit of one language to another one to
broaden the language style or language variety. In this case, it includes the
application of word, clause, idiom, greeting, and so on. Code-mixing refers to
the mixing of two or more languages or language varieties in speech. Code-mixing is similar to the use or creation
of pidgins; but while a pidgin is created across groups that do not share a
common language, code-mixing may occur within a multilingual setting where
speakers share more than one language.
Types
of code mixing
In Nababan’s theory in his book
Sosiolinguistiksuatupengantar (1984), code mixing is divided into two types of
languages. The two types of code mixing are:
• Inner code mixing
Example: Sayamerasa comfort
tinggaldisini (I feel comfort living in here).
In this case, the speaker mixes
up Indonesian with English.
• Outer code mixing
Example: jangankuatir, next time
will be better. (Don’t worry, next time will be better).
In this case, the speaker mixes
up Indonesian with English.
