“CODE SWITCHING AND CODE MIXING”
A. INTRODUCTION
Developing
communicative competence in two or more languages gives individuals
opportunities to express their feelings and thoughts and shape their identity.
It also helps them satisfy their individual and social needs in the different
contexts of the languages used. Hudson (1980) defined sociolinguistics
as the s
tudy of language in
relation to society, implying that sociolinguistics is part of the study of
language. Thus, the value of sociolinguistics is the light which it throws on
the nature of language in general, or on the characteristics of some particular
language. Sociolinguists might also study the
grammar,
phonetics,
vocabulary,
and other aspects of this socialist.
As we may know that in the society, there
are many variations of language. The study of language variation is concerned
with social
constraints determining language in its contextual
environment. Language, for instance, is one of
several things that people find different when visiting the village. People
especially children prefer to use Javanese in non-formal conversation rather
than Buginese where the region is originally from Buginese.
In sociolinguistics,
the phenomenon above known as Bilingualism and/or Multilingualism. Bilingualism
is the situation which the speakers use two languages when communicate with
others. Multilingualism is the situation of speakers who use three or more languages
in communication. The speakers usually use the pattern of code-switching or
code mixing in using those languages.
Code-mixing and code-switching are widespread phenomena in
bilingual communities where speakers use their native tongue (L1) and their
second language (L2) in different domains. These bilingual phenomena are called ‘code-mixing’ and ‘code-switching’
and these are ordinary phenomena in the area of bilingualism. These
phenomena occur when bilinguals substitute a word or phrase from one language
to another language.
This
paper deals with “Code switching and Code Mixing” and “how Code switching and
Code Mixing occurs. This paper begins by explaining the concept of ‘Code-Switching and Code-Mixing’, and
elaborate more about definition of code itself and continuoe with the definition of ‘Code Switching and
Code Mixing’, the differences between code switching and code mixing,
advantages/significance of Code Switching and Code Mixing, steps of conducting
Code Switching and Code Mixing and types
of Code- switching and Code- mixing then describing the use of
‘Code-Switching and Code-Mixing’.
Finally
Code-mixing
and code-switching have been around for decades. While the characteristics of
code-mixing and code-switching have been well-documented across a variety of
languages, little is known about how they are used as communicative strategies
B. CONCEPT OF ‘CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE-MIXING’
1. what is
code?
In communications, a
code is a rule for converting a piece of information (for example, a letter,
word, or phrase) into another form or representation, not necessarily of the
same sort. In communications and information processing, encoding is the process
by which a source (object) performs this conversion of information into data,
which is then sent to a receiver (observer), such as a data processing system (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code)
In computer programming, the word code refers to instructions to a computer in
a programming language. In this usage, the noun "code" typically
stands for source code, and the verb "to code" means to write source
code, to program. This usage may have originated when the first symbolic
languages were developed and were punched onto cards as "codes”. The term code is a
relatively neutral conceptualization of a linguistic variety—be it a language
or a dialect. Romaine (1995) mentions that: “I will use the term ‘code. Here in
a general sense to refer not only to different language, but also to varieties
of the same language as well as styles within a language.” However, not many
researchers really explicate the term in their definition. In this study,code
will be taking as a verbal component that can be as small as a morpheme or
as comprehensive and complex as the entire system of language.
2. Definition
of Code-Switching
Based on David C.S. Li (2008) that the term of
‘code-switching’ (CS) refer to the alternate use of two or more languages in an
extended stretch of discourse, where the switch takes place at sentence or
clause boundaries. The second definition explored by Fischer (1972) suggests
that code switching or inter-sentential code-alternation occurs when a
bilingual speaker uses more than one language in a single utterance above the
clause level to appropriately convey his/her intents. But from According to
Baker & Jones (1998) code-switching describes any switch among languages in
the course of a conversation, whether at the level of words, sentences or
blocks of speech, such as what often occurs among
bilinguals who speak the same languages, whereas code-mixing describes the
mixing of two languages at the word level (i.e., one word inthe sentence is in
a different language). For isntance, firstly, one uses Indonesian language,
then she/he switches into Makassarese or any other languages. People in
bilingual area tends to imply the codes pattern in their informal conversation
especially with someone familiar have a similarities background. In contras,
speak in different languages at once in the formal situation is rarely occur in
the society.
Language or code choice in communities where bilingualism or
multilingualism is the norm should be analyzed in the context where the speech
is produced. So Code-switching
is changing event from one code to another, and also switching
between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single
conversation For example, at first someone uses Indonesian
language, and then he/she switches into Javanese. This event manifests in
switch of regional, social, style and register variants. Patterns of code switching are
found to be different from one another because of several distinct processes
such as ‘insertion’, ‘alternation’ and ‘congruent lexicalization’.
Crystal (1987) suggests
that code, or language, switching occurs when an individual who is bilingual
alternates between two languages during his/her speech with another bilingual
person. A person who is bilingual may be said to be one who is able to
communicate, to varying extents, in a second language. This includes those who
make irregular use of a second language, are able to use a second language but
have not for some time (dormant bilingualism) or those who have considerable
skill in a second language (Crystal, 1987). This type of alteration, or code
switching, between languages occurs commonly amongst bilinguals and may take a
number of different forms, including alteration of sentences, phrases from both
languages succeeding each other and switching in a long narrative.
Ø Reasons Why We Code-Switch
a.
Sometimes the other language has a
better word or phrase to express a particular idea.I talk about this
reason in particular in
the post I mentioned above. I do this a lot with
adjectives, for example, and it really has nothing to do with not knowing the
equivalent in either language. It’s rather a matter of using the better word to
describe what I am trying to say.
b. Sometimes
the words we code-switch are the only ones we have or they are more readily
available in the other language. This is not to say that we don’t necessarily know the
correct word in the language we’re using. This has more to do with something
extremely interesting Prof. Grosjean calls the “complementary principle” which
basically has to do with the notion that for bilinguals different aspects of
life, such as work, family, school, sports, hobbies, etc., require different
languages. For example, I spent a large part of my career as a television
producer and although I worked for Univision for many years surrounded with
bilinguals (with different levels of proficiency), we would always switch to
English whenever we were talking about technical terminology related to, say,
editing video. It just made more sense to do so since in the case of editing
video, for instance, the software was in English.
c. Sometimes
we code-switch as a communicative tool, including to exclude someone or to show
expertise. If you’re bilingual, you’ve surely done this: switched to
the minority language so that those around you can’t understand. Sometimes it
might be to say something specifically about those you’re excluding; sometimes
you just don’t want others to listen to what you’re saying. If you’re
bilingual, you’ve surely been embarrassed when you found out the person you
were trying to exclude actually spoke the minority language, too!
There are a number of possible reasons for the switching from
one language to another and these will now be considered, as presented by
Crystal (1987).
ü
The first of these is the notion that a speaker
may not be able to express him/herself in one language so switches to the other
to compensate for the deficiency. As a result, the speaker may be triggered
into speaking in the other language for a while. This type of code switching
tends to occur when the speaker is upset, tired or distracted in some manner.
ü
Secondly, switching commonly occurs when an
individual wishes to express solidarity with a particular social group. Rapport
is established between the speaker and the listener when the listener responds
with a similar switch. This type of switching may also be used to exclude
others from a conversation who do not speak the second language. An example of
such a situation may be two people in an elevator in a language other than
English. Others in the elevator who do not speak the same language would be
excluded from the conversation and a degree of comfort would exist amongst the
speakers in the knowledge that not all those present in the elevator are
listening to their conversation.
ü
The final reason for the switching behavior
presented by Crystal (1987) is the alteration that occurs when the speaker
wishes to convey his/her attitude to the listener. Where monolingual speakers
can communicate these attitudes by means of variation in the level of formality
in their speech, bilingual speakers can convey the same by code switching.
Crystal (1987) suggests that where two bilingual speakers are accustom to
conversing in a particular language, switching to the other is bound to create
a special effect. These notions suggest that code switching may be used as a
socio-linguistic tool by bilingual speakers.
From the above
discussion, it may be concluded that code switching is not a language
interference on the basis that it supplements speech. Where it is used due to
an inability of expression, code switching provides a continuity in speech
rather than presenting an interference in language. The socio-linguistic
benefits have also been identified as a means of communicating solidarity, or
affiliation to a particular social group, whereby code switching should be
viewed from the perspective of providing a linguistic advantage rather than an
obstruction to communication. Further, code switching allows a speaker to
convey attitude and other emotives using a method available to those who are
bilingual and again serves to advantage the speaker, much like bolding or
underlining in a text document to emphasise points. Utilising the second
language, then, allows speakers to increase the impact of their speech and use
it in an effective manner.
Ø
Types
of Code- switching
Based on soewito:
a. InternalCode-Switching
If the code-switching occurs among regional languages in one national language,
or among dialects in one regional language, or among some styles in one
dialect, it is called as Internal Code-switching.
b. ExternalCode-Switching
If code-switching occurs among native language and foreign language is called
as External Code-switching. Ex. “Ah this man Hotman got his organization to
contribute a lot of money to the Armsterdamer fancy-fair. Ben jij naaar de
optocht geweest?”
Ø
Types of
code-switching based on (Poplack 1980)
·
Intersentential switching occurs outside
the sentence or the clause level (i.e. at sentence or clause boundaries). It is
sometimes called "extrasentential" switching. in which a change of language occurs at a clause or sentence
boundary, where each clause or sentence is in one language or the other, as
when a Spanish/English bilingual says: Sometimes I'll start a sentence in
English y termino en español (and finish it in Spanish). This last may
also occur as speakers take turns.
·
Intra-sentential switching occurs within
a sentence or a clause. in which
switches occur within a clause or sentence boundary, as when a Yoruba/English
bilingual says: Won o arrest a single person (won o they did
not).
·
Tag-switching is the switching of either
a
tag phrase or a
word, or both, from
language-B to language-A, (common
intra-sentential switches).
This involves the insertion of a tag in
one language into an utterance that is otherwise entirely in the other
language. We can see example, so he asked me for money, znas #, I had to say
no, znas #. The tag here is Serbian for ‘you know’.
Ø Code Switching in a Bilingual Community
Context
According to Trudgill, “speakers switch to manipulate or influence or
define the situation as they wish, and to convey nuances of meaning and
personal intention” (2000:105). Drawing upon this quotation, it may be
suggested that code switching can be used for self expression and is a way of
modifying language for the sake of personal intentions.
Another function of code switching is that it may be used in order to
build intimate interpersonal relationships among members of a bilingual
community. In this respect, it may be claimed that it is a tool for creating
linguistic solidarity especially between individuals who share the same
ethno-cultural identity. In order to clarify the subject, the following
dialogue which is observed and transcribed by Holmes may be given (1992:275):
The language shift these people perform reflects their ethnic identity and
functions as a bridge that builds solidarity among them, which is also related
to the high intimacy level concerning their relationship.
These
functions of code switching in natural contexts mentioned above may have
commonalities with its observable applications in foreign language classrooms.
In dealing with these functions, teachers’ perspectives and students’
perspectives will be handled separately in order to reflect a wide ranging
understanding of the phenomenon in educational settings. In building relations
between “the use and functions of code switching in authentic contexts” and
“the use and functions of code switching in foreign language classrooms”, it should
be kept in mind that a language classroom is a social group; therefore a
phenomenon related to naturally occurring daily discourse of any social group
has the potential to be applicable to and valid for any language classroom.
2. Definition
of Code-mixing
There are some definitions of
code mixing. Kridalaksana (1993) gives definiton of code mixing that is the use
a language unit of one language to another one to broaden the language style or
language variety. In this case, it includes the application of word, clause,
idiom, greeting, and so on.
Code-mixing refers to the mixing of
two or more languages or
language varieties in speech.
Code-mixing is similar to the use or creation
of
pidgins; but
while a pidgin is created across groups that do not share a common language,
code-mixing may occur within a
multilingual
setting where speakers share more than one language.
Muysken (2000) states
“code mixing refers to all cases where lexical items and grammatical features
from two languages appear in one sentence” According to Fischer (1972) state that code mixing also
called intra-sentential code switching or intra-sentential code-alternation
occurs when speakers use two or more languages below clause level within one
social situation. Code-mixing (also known as intrasentential
code-switching) is the switching of one language to another within the same
utterance or sentence. It has become a common phenomenon in communities where
two or more languages are alternately used for communication. On the contrary,
code-switching (also known as intersentential code-switching) is defined as a
means of communication involving a speaker alternating between one language and
another at the level of sentence. Callahan (2004) explains that code-switching
is the use of words and structures from more than one language or linguistic
variety by the same coder within the same utterance. Actually code mixing phenomena can never be avoided.
People can apply the code mixing in spoken or written language. As a foreign
language, english becomes an inseperable part of of indonesian language, even though they are
different in grammar and lexicon. It is important to note that code mixing
between english and indonesian languange does not only occur in the daily
conversation, but also takes place in mass media such as newspaper, magazine
and academic writing. So code-Mixing: The use of two or more
language by putting in/inserting linguistic elements in one language into other
language consistently. In code-mixing, dependency features are marked by the
relationship between the language role and function. If the speaker mixes
his/her code/language, then it must be asked who the speaker is: his/her social
background, level of education,
religion, etc. A speaker who masters many languages will have chance to mix
code more than the other speaker who only masters one or two languages.
"Code mixing"
refers to the tendency of bilinguals to switch languages within the same
utterance or thought trajectory. Contrary to popular belief, there is
significant evidence to suggest that bilingual children do not code mix because
of cognitive confusion or lack of knowledge of correct grammar. On the
contrary, their ability to code mix necessitates prior knowledge of grammar in
both languages (Genesee, 52). Additionally, studies have shown that children
are able to make choices about their language use depending on whom they are
speaking to. They tend to speak to each parent more in the parent's stronger
language (Genesee, 58). They are also able to code switch based on linguistic
cues from the people they are speaking with (Genesee, 58-60). It can can be concluded that code mixing
is the use of two or more languages or dialect in non formal situation among
the intimate people. In this informalsituation, we can mix freely the code
especialyy if there are terms which can not be expressed in either bilingual or
mulitilingualsocieties. It happens because the conversant tend to use more than
one language.
Ø Types of Code- mixing
Types of code mixing
In Nababan’s theory in his book Sosiolinguistik suatu pengantar (1984),
code mixing is divided into two types of languages. The two types of code
mixing are:
·
Inner code mixing
Example:
Saya merasa comfort tinggal disini (I
feel comfort living in here).
In
this case, the speaker mixes up Indonesian with English.
·
Outer code mixing
Example:
jangan kuatir, next time will be better. (Don’t
worry, next time will be better).
In
this case, the speaker mixes up Indonesian with English.
Types of Code Mixing
a. Intra-Sentential Switching / Code Mixing
This kind of code
mixing occurs within a phrase, a clause or a sentence boundary, as when a
French-English bilingual says: “I started going like this. Y luego decla (and
then he said), look at the smoke coming
out my fingers.” Another example is from Wardaugh (1986:108) “Estaba training
para pelar” : “He was training to fight.”
b. Intra-Lexical Code Mixing
This kind of code
mixing which occurs within a word boundary, such as in shoppã (English shop
with the Panjabi plural ending) or kuenjoy (English enjoy with
the Swahili prefix ku, meaning ‘to’).
c. Involving a Change of Pronunciation
This kind of code
mixing occurs at the phonological level, as when Indonesia people say an
English word, but modify it to Indonesian phonological structure. For instance,
the word ‘strawberry’ is said to be ‘stroberi’ by Indonesian people.
4. Difference between Code-switching
and Code-mixing
Maschler (1998) defines code mixing
or a mixed code as “using two languages such that a third, new code emerges, in
which elements from the two languages are incorporated into a structurally
definable pattern”. And Bokamba (1989) defines both
concepts thus: “Code-switching is the mixing of words, phrases and sentences
from two distinct grammatical (sub) systems across sentence boundaries within
the same speech event… code-mixing is the embedding of various linguistic units
such as affixes (bound morphemes), words (unbound morphemes), phrases and
clauses from a cooperative activity where the participants, in order to in
infer what is intended, must reconcile what they hear with what they
understand. “
Hymes
(1976) defines only code-switching as “a common term for alternative use of two
or more language, varieties of a language or even speech styles. So There
is no distinct difference between code-switching and code-mixing. Crystal
(1987) says that code-switching occurs when an individual who is bilingual
alternates between two languages during his or her speech with another
bilingual person. He goes further to explicate that the switch may take several
forms such as alteration of sentences and phrases from both languages
succeeding each other and switching in a long narrative. When an individual
alternates different codes in his or her utterances, we then talk of
code-mixing. So we can say that code-mixing happens as the result of
code-switching. A speaker may start a sentence in a particular language and
then switches over to another language to finish it, or use different codes for
different words, phrases or clauses within the same sentence.
CONCLUSIONS
Term of ‘code-mixing’ and
‘code-switching’ is an ordinary phenomenon in the area of bilingualism. These phenomena occur when
bilinguals substitute a word or phrase from one language to another language. Code-mixing and code-switching are
widespread phenomena in bilingual communities where speakers use their native
tongue (L1) and their second language (L2) in different domains. In monolingual societies, people may
think that code-switching and code mixing is very unnatural. With regard to the
point of view of code-mixing and code-switching, people used to think about
code-mixing and code-switching negatively. However, it is inevitable to notice
that people usually switch and mix their languages in bilingual and/or
multilingual societies. These
opinions might make bilinguals feel they have a lack of both languages and they
are not included in both cultures either. However, code-mixing and
Code-switching may influence bilinguals’ languages positively. Code-switched is found when the
teachers from the target language to English in order to maintain classroom
order, to create solidarity or empathy, to cover lack of experience or
strategies, to rephrase or modify their speech.
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